Personal Crisis Experience

Experiences typically associated with psychological trauma include:

Exposure to the trauma

The physically closer the individual is to the traumatic event, and the longer the exposure, the greater the likelihood of adverse reactions to the crisis.

Relationships with victims

After exposure to the traumatic event, a relationship with crisis victims is the second most important factor associated with psychological trauma. The stronger the relationships, the greater the likelihood of trauma.

Severity of acute distress

Not only does the immediate response to a traumatic event influence the ability to respond adaptively, but it also appears that those who display more severe reactions (e.g., those who dissociate or panic) are at greater risk for psychological trauma.

Perceived threat

The individual’s subjective impression of the traumatic event can be more important than the event itself. Traumatized individuals will have perceived the event as extremely threatening. Among the factors influencing children’s perceptions of the threat are the reactions of caregivers. Crises that are initially not perceived as threatening may become threatening after a child observes the panic reactions of parents or teachers. In addition, children may not view a traumatic event as threatening because they are too young to recognize and understand the potential danger. Conversely, relative cognitive sophistication may make a young child more vulnerable to understanding the magnitude of a traumatic event.

Personal Vulnerabilities

Personal vulnerabilities associated with psychological trauma include both external (familial and social resources) and internal (mental health, developmental level, and previous history of trauma) factors.

External Factors

Familial factors

Individuals who are no longer able to live with a nuclear family member, come from dysfunctional homes, are exposed to family violence, have a family history of mental illness, and/or live with caregivers who have Acute Stress Disorder or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder are more likely to become psychological trauma victims.

Social factors

The absence of close peer friendships, access to positive adult models outside of the family, or connections to pro-social organizations or institutions (such as schools) increase vulnerability to psychological trauma. Individuals who must face a trauma without supportive and nurturing friends or relatives suffer more than those who have at lease one source of support.

Internal Factors

Mental health

A pre-existing mental illness influences the development of acute distress and subsequent psychological trauma.

Developmental level

While developmental immaturity may be a protective factor when it comes to initial trauma (i.e., younger children may not comprehend the actual threat of the trauma), once an event is judged threatening, developmentally younger individuals are at greater risk for psychological trauma.

History of trauma

A history of prior exposure to trauma increases vulnerability to future trauma.

Summary

A number of factors may play a role in psychological trauma. Although physical proximity to the crisis plays a primary role, and all exposed individuals will be affected to some degree, other variables such as familiarity with victims, reactions to the trauma, perception of the threat, and personal vulnerability are also involved. Knowledge of these factors may be especially helpful when distinguishing those victims who are likely to cope more effectively with a traumatic event, from those who are likely to have ongoing difficulties (e.g., to develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder). For further information on conducting psychological triage in the school setting, as well as specific psychological triage tools, see Brock, Sandoval, and Lewis (2000; see “Resources”). For further information on Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, see Saigh and Yasik (2002; see “Resources”).

Websites

National Association of School Psychologists

National Mental Health Association

National Organization for Victims Assistance (NOVA)

Resources

Brock, S. E. (2002). Identifying psychological trauma victims. In S. E. Brock, P. J. Lazarus, & S. R. Jimerson (Eds.), Best practices in school crisis prevention and intervention (pp. 367–383). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. ISBN: 0932955843.

Brock, S. E., Sandoval, J., & Lewis, S. (2001). Preparing for crises in the schools: A manual for building school crisis response teams (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN: 0471384232.